DEALING
WITH OTHER NATIONS
NATO Fighters Enforcing the No-fly Zone over Libya
Overview
American government is responsible for establishing
and implementing policies that affect the lives of its citizens both nationally
and internationally. Domestic policy includes programs and
laws directly related to activities within the borders of the United
States. Foreign policy, on the other hand, covers issues connected to other
countries and to American citizens traveling or living abroad. In recent decades, globalization and the War
on Terror have elevated the importance of cooperation among nations. World events now require a careful analysis
of foreign actions and reactions. Let’s
examine the goals and processes of American foreign policy.
Foreign Policy Objectives: The Big Picture
In today’s global society, the actions taken by the
United States in foreign affairs have far-reaching effects. They also cover a wide range of topics,
including trade, participation in international organizations and military
responses. Throughout America’s history,
several long-term objectives have influenced decisions concerning foreign
policy.
Ø Protecting America and its
Citizens: The most
important goal of any country’s foreign policy is national security. This
involves the development of military forces for defense and negotiations with
other nations to avoid dangerous situations.
Americans need to protect themselves from foreign invasion and to travel
abroad with a certain degree of safety.
The United States also places a priority on creating an international
business climate that encourages trade and commerce.
Ø Encouraging Trade: It is important that U.S. foreign policy
maintain worldwide conditions favorable for trade. The United States relies heavily on the
importation of oil, precious metals and raw materials necessary for
industry. The income generated from
exporting food, manufactured goods and technology is a valuable asset to the
American economy.
Ø Promoting World Peace: The emergence of the United States and the
Soviet Union as superpowers following World War II dominated foreign policy
decisions for most of the remainder of the twentieth century. During the Cold War, both countries formed
alliances to maintain a balance of power and to prevent war. The development of the atomic bomb encouraged
an arms race and attempts to gain military advantage. The collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991
brought an end to the Cold War and changes in foreign policy. As part of the War on Terror, the United States
continues to stress the importance of controlling nuclear weapons, working with
multi-national organizations and using diplomatic tactics to ensure world
peace.
Peace Corps Worker Teaching Tee-ball
Ø Supporting Democracy: Since its origin, the United States has tried
to promote human rights and democracy throughout the world. Some countries have been provided with
economic aid and military assistance to protect these ideals. American troops have also been sent to defend
countries from invasions and revolutions.
The U.S. government has also withheld aid from nations when they have
abused human rights.
Ø Providing Humanitarian Aid: Another goal of American foreign policy is to
provide humanitarian aid in response to critical situations. Government agencies and private groups send
disaster relief around the world to the victims of catastrophes, such as
earthquakes and famines.
Go to Questions 1 through 6.
Who Makes Foreign Policy?
The executive branch of the federal government bears
most of the responsibility for creating and carrying out foreign policy. Presidents and their representatives meet
with other world leaders to resolve conflicts before they require military
settlement and to improve relations.
While working toward these goals, the President relies on specific
departments within the Cabinet and a number of executive agencies.
The Secretary
of State is customarily the President’s chief foreign policy advisor and
the coordinator of those actions which affect other countries. He or she supervises the Foreign Service consisting of ambassadors and other official
representatives in over 160 nations.
State Department personnel establish embassies in nations recognized by
the United States and provide an American presence abroad. They offer valuable insights into the
culture, customs and public opinions of the regions in which they work. The chart below shows the major bureaus and
positions within the State Department.
The Department
of Defense is responsible for national security and plays a significant
role in determining U.S. foreign policy.
Headquartered in Arlington, Virginia at the Pentagon, this division of the executive branch employs two million
military personnel and one million civilians.
Although the President is the commander-in-chief of the armed forces,
the Secretary of Defense directs the operations of this department. He also advises the President on military
matters and, according to federal law, must be a civilian rather than a
soldier. A five-member team, known as
the Joint Chiefs of Staff, is also
part of the Department of Defense. This
group updates the President on advancements in weapons technology and assesses
the strength of the armed forces. The National Security Agency, also under
the jurisdiction of the Defense Department, provides policy-makers with
information pertinent to the protection of the United States by collecting,
translating, decoding and analyzing data.
Because it is authorized to accomplish this mission with the use of
undetected devices and software, the National Security Agency’s surveillance
methods are often criticized.
National Security Agency Headquarters
The Central
Intelligence Agency (CIA), classified as an executive agency, is another
source of valuable information and contributes to shaping foreign policy. To gain insights and to help maintain
national security, its agents conduct covert operations that utilize electronic
eavesdropping, spy satellites and other undercover options. They also monitor foreign media outlets,
study documents issued by other countries and confer with experts on a wide
variety of topics. Because so much of
their work is secretive, the activities of the CIA are frequently a source of
controversy and create conflict between the executive and legislative
branches.
Because of the huge amount of information to
consider when making foreign policy decisions, the Office of the President
includes the National Security Council,
put in place by President Truman, and the National Security Staff, formed by
President Obama. These groups are made
up of select Cabinet secretaries, such as the Secretary of State and the
Secretary of Defense, and various presidential advisors. They review material collected by the CIA,
the National Security Agency and other sources and suggest courses of action to
the President based on their findings.
President Obama Meeting with the National Security Council
The other branches of the federal government also
exercise some authority in the formation of foreign policy and check the power
of the President. The Constitution gives
the Senate the power to ratify treaties and to approve presidential
appointments, including ambassadors, Cabinet posts and the director of the
CIA. The funds to enforce the
President's foreign policy decisions must be appropriated by the House and the
Senate. Both houses of Congress maintain
committees that investigate the U.S. response to world events and review the
need for military intervention. The
Supreme Court plays a role by considering the constitutionality of foreign
policy and interprets international law when it conflicts with American law.
Beyond the federal government, a number of other
groups impact foreign policy. State and
local officials also have a stake in the direction of foreign policy. States, cities and even counties sometimes
send representatives to foreign nations to discuss investments and trade. They establish foreign offices with the hope
of improving cultural relations and the business climate. Like interest groups, states and cities
employ lobbyists to promote decisions that are favorable to their
objectives. The media, too, is a
powerful force in creating public perceptions that influence foreign policy.
The Iran-contra Affair
Some Americans believe that groups within the Office
of the President, such as the National Security Council and the State
Department, have too much power and are not adequately controlled by the system
of check and balances. This criticism
came into national focus in 1986 with the uncovering of the Iran-contra affair. The public became aware that the National
Security Council had agreed to sell weapons to the Iranian government in
exchange for the release of American hostages kidnapped by terrorists connected
to Iran. Because President Reagan had
often stated that he would never bargain with terrorists, the secret sale was
very embarrassing to his administration.
To make matters worse, the money obtained from the sale has been sent to
the fund the contras, a group of Nicaraguan revolutionaries, without the
knowledge of Congress or the American public.
The National Security Council was well aware that this type of foreign
aid is prohibited by Congress. Congress
quickly began its own investigation and held a number of lengthy hearings. It concluded that the CIA, the State
Department, the Justice Department and the National Security Council had all
acted inappropriately and had conspired to cover up illegal activity. The scandal resulted in new rules concerning
covert operations and the President's obligation to keep Congress closely
informed.
Go to Questions 7 through 16.
Foreign Policy Tools
As with economic policy, foreign policy has various
tools to deal effectively with other nations.
These tactics range from diplomatic procedures, which stress the
formation of working relationships, to military force, an option exercised when
all other methods fail.
Ø Diplomacy: In terms foreign policy, diplomacy is the
process of negotiating agreements through the establishment of good, working
relationships and productive discussions.
The ultimate goal is to achieve a win-win for all the nations involved
and to encourage countries to view the United States in a positive way. Although on-on-one meetings between the
President and foreign heads of state frequently make the news, much of this
work is conducted through the Foreign Service, a bureau of the State
Department. Resolving disputes in this
manner can be a slow process and requires a thorough knowledge of protocol, a term that refers to the customs
and procedures used by various governments.
Ø International Organizations: Membership in international organizations can
be used to help achieve the political, economic and humanitarian goals
associated with foreign policy. The
United States belongs to the United
Nations (U.N.) and is a permanent member of its Security Council. Presidents, Secretaries of State and other
American representatives have addressed the U.N.'s General Assembly to explain
and to clarify positions on a number of issues, such as terrorism and arms
control. The United States also
participates in the activities conducted by several specialized agencies, such
as the World Health Organization and the World Food Program. Because a stable world economy is a major
concern, the World Bank, the International Monetary Fund and the World Trade Organization
have gained U.S. support.
Meeting of the U.N. Security Council
Ø Foreign Aid: The United States maintains good relations
with other countries by providing assistance through foreign aid. This comes in many forms, including technical
advice, low-cost loans, food, medical supplies and equipment for farms and industries. Most foreign aid dollars are actually spent
in the United States where they pay for American products and services that are
shipped overseas. The Peace Corps and other volunteer
organizations also represent a form of foreign aid. Through their work, these groups have
improved the standards of living in many countries and have enhanced America's
image abroad.
Ø Sanctions: Just as foreign aid can be used to strengthen
relations between countries, sanctions
can be enacted to express disapproval of certain programs or policies. The government may refuse to sell specific
products to another country or deny foreign aid. Another common type of economic sanction is
an embargo. This tactic applies pressure by prohibiting
ships of designated countries from entering American ports. An embargo can also be used to prevent entire
shipments of U.S. products to certain nations.
Although they are peaceful and non-military measures, economic sanctions
often deepen resentment toward the United States and deprive civilian
populations of medicine or food. Political
sanctions are sometimes levied in the form of a boycott or a decision not to participate in an international
event. For example, the American
athletes did not attend the summer Olympic Games in Moscow in 1980 to protest
the presence of Soviet troops in Afghanistan.
In a similar manner, the Soviet Union chose to boycott the Los Angeles
Olympic Games in the summer of 1984.
Ø Collective Security: Collective security pursues foreign policy
goals by attempting to maintain the balance of power throughout the world with
agreements, alliances and coalitions.
Nations pledge to come to each other's defense if attacked and to regard
a threat to one country as a threat to all those in the group. The United States has joined almost fifty of
these pacts, including the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) and the
Organization of American States (OAS).
The agreements usually commit the U.S. to send military support if the
other country is attacked. It also
grants the United States permission to establish military bases in that
country.
U.S. Troops in Afghanistan
Ø Military Force: For most nations, military force is the last
resort in accomplishing foreign policy goals.
It requires careful analysis and extensive planning. Policy-makers must consider the probability
of success and the risk to American lives before sending U.S. troops into
combat. There is always a danger that a
minor incident may escalate into a major war and result in the deployment of
nuclear weapons.
Go to Questions 17-20.
What’s Next?
Although much of the responsibility for developing
foreign policy remains with the executive branch, all branches and levels of
government contribute to its formation.
Political parties, interest groups and the media also play a role in
dealing with other nations. The
Department of State is a major factor in coordinating foreign policy and
provides citizens with a meaningful way to serve their country. To investigate career opportunities in
Foreign Service, click on the graphic below.
In the next unit, you will read about the ways that
citizens participate in state and local government. Before moving on, review the names and terms
in Unit 15; then, complete Questions 21 through 30.
Go to Questions 21 through 30.
Below are additional educational resources and activities for this unit.