THE TROJAN WAR

Unit Overview

Thousands and thousands of years ago, near the eastern end of the Mediterranean Sea, there was a great city that was very rich and powerful. It was second to none on earth. This city was Troy, and there was no city more famous. This city became famous because of the Trojan War and the great epic poem by Homer, The Iliad. It’s hard to believe that the cause of such a major war began with a fight between a few goddesses.

The Golden Apple

The evil goddess of discord, Eris, was not popular in Olympus. When the gods held banquets, she was left out on purpose. She resented this and was determined to make trouble. One day, there was a celebration for the marriage of King Peleus and the sea nymph Thetis. All of the gods and goddesses were invited except for Eris. This greatly upset her and she decided to create her own fun.

Into the banqueting hall Eris threw a golden apple. On this apple was inscribed the words “for the fairest.” Naturally, all of the goddesses wanted this apple. In the end, it was narrowed down to three goddesses – Aphrodite, Hera, and Athena. They first went to Zeus and asked him to determine who would receive the apple. Intelligently, Zeus declined to make this decision. He knew that whatever he decided would upset the other two goddesses. Instead, he told the three to go to Mount Ida, near Troy. Here, the young prince Paris would make the decision. Zeus told the three that Paris was an excellent judge of beauty.

Paris, although a royal prince, was doing shepherd’s work. This was because his father, Priam, the King of Troy, had been warned that his son would one day be the reason for the downfall of his family. So, Priam sent Paris away. At this time, Paris was living in the country with a nymph named Oenone.

When Athena, Aphrodite, and Hera appeared to Paris, he was amazed. The three goddesses asked him not to consider who was the most beautiful, but to consider which bribe was the most appealing. The three were prepared to bribe Paris in order to receive the golden apple. All three offered things that would be attractive to any man. Hera promised to make Paris the lord of Europe and Asia. Athena said that Paris would lead the Trojans to victory in a war against Greece. Aphrodite said that she would make the fairest woman in the world his. Paris chose Aphrodite’s offer. He would receive the fairest woman in the world, and Aphrodite would receive the golden apple. This was the Judgment of Paris and the real reason that the Trojan War was fought.

Helen

The fairest woman in the world was named Helen. She was the daughter of Zeus and Leta and the sister of Castor and Pollux. Everyone knew how beautiful she was. All of the eligible young men in Greece were interested in marrying her. When her suitors assembled in her home to ask for her hand in marriage, her mother’s husband, King Tyndareus, was afraid to select one among them. Tyndareus was afraid that if he selected one young man, the others would unite against him. Therefore, he exacted a solemn oath from all of the suitors.

Tyndareus made the suitors swear that if any wrong was done to the man selected to be Helen’s husband, they would all support him and fight for him. Eager to learn who was the lucky man who would be married to the most beautiful woman in the world, the young men agreed. It was to their advantage to make this oath. They were hoping to be named her husband, and they would also gratefully accept the help if needed, especially if someone attempted to abduct Helen. Tyndareus selected Menelaus, the brother of Agamemnon, and made him the King of Sparta as well.

All of these events had taken place when Aphrodite promised the fairest woman in the world to Paris. Aphrodite knew who the most beautiful woman in the world was, and she knew where she could be found. Paris didn’t think twice about leaving Oenone. He left for Sparta, where Menelaus and Helen received him as their guest. Remember that the ties between guest and host were strong and that hospitality was important. Guest and host were not to bring harm against one another. It was Paris who broke this sacred bond. Menelaus trusted him completely and left Paris in his home when he went to Crete.

The Call to War

When Menelaus returned home from Crete, he discovered that Helen was gone. He called upon all of Greece to help him. Many of the young men who had previously sworn to serve and protect Menelaus reported. The idea of fighting in a war, crossing the seas, and leaving Troy in ashes appealed to them. There were two who did not report to fight. Odysseus, the King of Ithaca, and Achilles, the son of Peleus and the sea nymph Thetis, did not report.

Odysseus

Odysseus was considered to be one of the wisest and shrewdest men in Greece. He did not want to leave his house and family to embark on a war for what he considered to be a faithless woman. He pretended that he had gone mad in order to avoid going to war. When a messenger from the Greek Army arrived, King Odysseus was plowing a field and sowing it with salt instead of seeds. The messenger was smart, however, and outsmarted Odysseus. He grabbed Odysseus’ son and put him directly in the way of the plow. Instantly, Odysseus turned the plow, sparing his son and proving that he had all of his wits about him. Reluctantly, he had to join the army.

Achilles was held back by his mother. The sea nymph knew that if he went to Troy it was fated that he die there. She sent him to the court of Lycomedes, the king who had killed Theseus. He made Achilles wear women’s clothes and hide among the maidens. Odysseus was dispatched by the army to find him. Disguised as a peddler, or person who sells things on the street or door to door, Odysseus went to where the maidens were socializing. In his pack, he carried jewelry and trinkets that would appeal to the women. He also had some fine weapons and knives. While the girls admired the jewelry, Achilles was admiring the weapons. Odysseus then knew that Achilles was hiding. He had no trouble making Achilles disregard what his mother had said. Achilles left with Odysseus to go to the Greek camp.

Off to Battle

A thousand ships prepared to leave for the war. They met at Aulis, a place of strong winds and dangerous tides. It was impossible to sail from here while the north wind blew. The Army was desperate. At last, a soothsayer, or a person who can tell the future, declared that the gods had spoken to him. This soothsayer’s name was Calchas, and he claimed that Artemis was angry. She said that some of her beloved creatures, a wild hare and her young, had been slain by the Greeks. The only way to calm the wind and ensure a safe voyage to Troy was to appease her by sacrificing to her a royal maiden, Iphigenia, the eldest daughter of the Commander in Chief, Agamemnon. This sounded terrible to everyone, especially her father.

Even though the idea of sacrificing his daughter was horrible, the Army pleaded with Agamemnon and he yielded. His reputation with the Army was at stake, as was his ambition to conquer Troy. Agamemnon sent home for his daughter. He wrote to his wife that he had arranged a marriage between Iphigenia and Achilles. When Iphigenia arrived, ready for her marriage ceremony, she was carried to the altar and killed. When she died, the north wind ceased, or stopped, blowing and the Greek ships sailed out over a quiet sea. The evil price they paid with the sacrifice would one day bring evil down upon them.

When they reached the mouth of the Simois, one of the rivers of Troy, the first man to leap ashore was Protesilaus. This was a brave deed, for an oracle had said that he who landed first would be the first to die. When he died, the Greeks paid him honors as if he was divine. The gods distinguished him as well. They had Hermes bring him up from the dead to see his wife, Laodamia. Laodamia did not want to be separated from her husband, however. When he went back to the Underworld, she committed suicide and went with him.

The thousand ships from Greece carried with them many strong men. The Trojans, however, were also well equipped with warriors. King Priam and Queen Hecuba had many strong and brave sons who were prepared to lead the attack and defend the city. One son, Hector, was considered to be very brave and a great warrior. All of the warriors, Trojan and Greek, were aware that they could die during this battle. Even with this knowledge, they continued to fight.

Achilles & Agamemnon

This war waged on for nine years, with victory wavering from side to side. Neither the Greeks nor the Trojans could gain an advantage. Then, a quarrel erupted between two Greeks, Achilles and Agamemnon. This quarrel was over a woman named Chryseis. She was the daughter of Apollo’s priest and had been carried off and given to Agamemnon. Her father came to beg for her release, but Agamemnon refused to let her go. The priest prayed to Apollo for help. The sun god heard his pleas and decided to help. From his sun chariot, he shot down fiery arrows upon the Greek Army. Men were sickened and died. Funeral pyres were burning continually.

At last, Achilles called an assembly of the men. He told them that they could not hold out against both the pestilence and the Trojans. They had to either find a way to appease Apollo or sail home. The prophet Calchas said that he knew why the god was angry, but he was afraid to speak. He wouldn’t speak until Achilles guaranteed him his safety. When the other men heard this, they realized that the plague was because of how Apollo’s priest had been treated. When Calchas declared that Chryseis was to be given back to her father, all of the warriors were behind him. Agamemnon was angered but had to agree. He told Achilles that if he had to give up Chryseis, he would find another girl.

Chryseis was returned to her father. Agamemnon then sent two of his squires to Achilles’ tent to take Briseis, the true love of Achilles, away from him. The men did this reluctantly. Achilles knew why they were there. He knew that they were acting on orders. He assured them that they could take Briseis and no harm would come to them, but that Agamemnon would one day pay dearly for this action.

That night, Achilles’ mother came to him. She was angry that her son had gone to battle against her wishes. She told him to have nothing more to do with the Greeks. She even went up to Heaven and asked Zeus to give success to the Trojans. Zeus was very reluctant. The war had reached Olympus – the gods were enraged against each other. Aphrodite was on Paris’ side. Hera and Athena were against him. Ares favored the Greeks; Apollo and Artemis favored the Trojans. Zeus liked the Trojans the best but did not want to openly disagree with Hera. He wanted to remain neutral. He could not, however, resist Thesis. This, of course, angered Hera and she immediately began thinking of ways to circumvent, or bypass, Zeus and his actions.

The Plan

The plan Zeus made was simple. He knew that the Greeks without Achilles would be inferior to the Trojans. He sent a dream to Agamemnon that promised him victory if he attacked. While Achilles stayed in his tent, a fierce battle followed. Up on the wall of Troy, King Priam and the other old men of Troy watched the battle. Helen, the cause of the entire war, came to them. When they looked at her, however, they didn’t feel any blame. They understood that men would fight for a woman so beautiful. She stayed on the wall with them and told them the names of the Greek heroes. To their shock, the battle ended. Both armies drew back on either side and in the space between, Paris and Menelaus faced each other. It was evident that the sensible decision had been reached to let the two most concerned with the war to fight it out alone.

Menelaus

Paris struck first but Menelaus caught the spear on his shield. He then swung at Paris and this caught Paris’ tunic. It did not wound him. Menelaus drew his sword which was now his only weapon. When he drew this weapon, it fell from his hands broken. He leaped on Paris and grabbed his helmet’s crest. This swung Paris off of his feet. Menelaus would have dragged Paris back to the Greeks if Aphrodite had not intervened. She tore the strap that kept the helmet on Paris’ head and the helmet came away in Menelaus’ hand. Paris was picked up in a cloud and taken back to Troy.

Furiously, Menelaus went through the Trojan ranks looking for Paris. No one knew where he was or how he had escaped the battle. So, Agamemnon spoke to both armies. He said that Menelaus had won and that the Trojans should give Helen back. This would have happened if Hera and Athena had not intervened. Hera was determined that the war would not end until Troy was completely destroyed. Athena swooped down to the battlefield. She convinced Pandarus, a Trojan, to shoot an arrow at Menelaus. He was only slightly wounded but the fact that someone would break the truce angered him and the Greeks. The battle resumed.

Ajax & Achilles

Two Heroes

Since Achilles was in his tent, two heroes emerged on the Greek side. They were Ajax and Diomedes. They fought bravely. Aeneas came close to dying by Diomedes’ hands. He was more than just royal; he was also the son of Aphrodite. When he was wounded, she went to the battlefield to save him. She lifted him up in her arms. Diomedes, however, knew that she was cowardly, and continued to approach her. He wounded her hand. Crying, she let Aeneas fall. She made her way back to Olympus. Zeus made her stay away from the battlefield and to remember that she should focus on love and not war. Aeneas was not killed. Apollo enveloped him in a cloud and carried him to Pergamos, the holy place of Troy. Here, Artemis healed him of his wounds.

Diomedes continued fighting until he came face to face with Hector. There he also saw Ares, the god of war. Ares was fighting for Hector. At the sight of Ares, Diomedes called for the Greeks to fall back slowly, and to keep their faces to the Trojans. This angered Hera. She asked Zeus to remove Ares from the battlefield. Zeus gave her permission to go to the battlefield. There, Hera stood beside Diomedes and urged him to continue to fight without fear. At that point, Diomedes rushed Ares and hurled his spear at him. Athena drove it home, and it entered Ares’ body. The War-god screamed and the awful sound frightened the Greeks and Trojans. Ares fled to Olympus and complained of Athena’s violence toward him. Zeus told Ares to quit his whining.

With Ares gone, the Trojans were forced to fall back. A brother of Hector’s went to their mother and told her to offer to Athena the most beautiful robe she owned and prayed that she have mercy. Hector felt that this was wise advice, but Athena denied this request.

Hector returned to the palace briefly while his mother was making this offering to Athena. He went to Andromache, his wife, and Astyanax, his son. They both begged him to remain with them inside the protective palace walls. Although Hector loved his wife and son, he knew that he had to return to the battle. He prayed that one day people would think of his son more highly than they thought of him. He told them that he loved them and returned to the battle outside of the palace walls.

By the time Hector returned to the battlefield, Zeus had remembered the promise he made the Thetis to avenge Achilles’ wrong. He ordered all of the immortals to remain on Olympus. He went to earth to help the Trojans. Achilles sat alone in his tent and the battle was not going well for the Greeks. Hector drove his chariot through the Greek ranks. Many warriors fell beneath his spear. When the evening came, the Trojans had driven the Greeks back, almost all the way to their ships.

A Turn of Events

Troy rejoiced that night. The Greek camps were filled with despair. Agamemnon was ready to give up and sail back to Greece. Nestor, the oldest and wisest among the chieftains, spoke out boldly. He said that if Agamemnon had not angered Achilles, the Greeks would not have been so easily defeated. He urged Agamemnon to find a way to appease Achilles. Agamemnon confessed that he had been a fool. He would send Briseis back, along with other gifts. He begged Odysseus to take his offer to Achilles.

Odysseus and two other chieftains found Achilles with Patroclus, his best friend. Achilles welcomed them and provided food and drink for them. When Odysseus and the chieftains presented him with the gifts and Agamemnon’s offer, he refused. He said that he was sailing home and that all the Greeks would be smart to do the same.

Odysseus and the others returned to camp and told the Greeks of Achilles’ warning. They did not agree to sail back, however. The next day, they were engaged in a battle that did push them back to the beaches were their ships were docked. Hera was planning on helping them. She saw Zeus sitting on Mount Ida watching the Trojans fight. She knew that she had to go to Zeus looking so beautiful that he could not resist her. When he took her in his arms, she would pour sweet sleep upon him and he would forget the Trojans. When Zeus saw her, her love overcame his heart and he thought no more of his promise to Thetis.

At once the battle turned to favor the Greeks. Ajax hurled Hector to the ground. Before he could wound him, Aeneas lifted him and bore him away. With Hector gone, the Greeks were able to drive the Trojans far back from the ships. If Zeus had not awakened, it is possible that Troy would have been destroyed. Zeus woke up and saw the Trojans retreating. It was clear to him that his sleeping was the result of Hera and her trickery. Hera promptly denied having anything to do with the Trojans’ defeat. She blamed Poseidon. Poseidon had been helping the Greeks. He ignored Zeus’ previous orders for all of the immortals to stay out of the fight. Zeus sent Hera back to Olympus and summoned Iris, the rainbow messenger, to command Poseidon to withdraw from the battle.

Apollo revived Hector and breathed into him surpassing power. Standing before the Greeks, Hector and Apollo struck fear in all of the Greek warriors. The Trojans again gained so much ground that they could set the Greek ships on fire if they wished. The Greeks were helpless and exhausted.

Patroclus

Patroclus, Achilles’ best friend, saw what was happening to the Greeks. He could no longer deny fighting with them. He asked Achilles for his armor. Patroclus put on Achilles’ armor and led the Myrmidons, Achilles’ men, to the battle. At first, the new group of men made the Trojans waver. For a time, Patroclus fought gloriously. Unfortunately, he met Hector face to face. Hector’s spear gave Patroclus a mortal wound. His soul fled from his body and went into the Underworld. Hector stripped Achilles’ armor from Patroclus’ body. Hector then took his own armor off and dressed himself in Achilles’ armor. It seemed as if Hector had taken on Achilles’ strength as well, and no Greek could defeat him.

Evening came and Achilles sat by his tent and waited for his friend, Patroclus, to return. Instead, he saw Nestor’s son, Antilochus, running toward him. Antilochus was the bearer of bad news. He told Achilles about what happened to Patroclus. Achilles became filled with grief for his friend. His mother came to visit him, attempting to cheer him up. Achilles told Thetis that he could not live with himself if he did not attempt to get revenge for the death of Patroclus. Thetis reminded her son that he was fated to die after Hector. Achilles told his mother that if that was meant to be, that was what would happen. This time, Thetis did not attempt to hold him back. She told him to wait until the morning.

Achilles

That morning, Thetis returned to Achilles’ tent. With her, she brought weapons that were made by Hephaestus. Achilles’ put on the new armor and took up the weapons. He went to the other Greeks and announced that he intended to fight. Everyone rejoiced. They prepared for battle by eating a meal together.

When everyone was finished eating, Achilles led the attack. The immortals knew that this would be a historical battle and the last time that Hector and Achilles fought one another. Zeus took out his scales and on one side he set the lot of Hector’s death. On the other, he put Achilles’ death. Hector’s side sank down. It was then known that Achilles’ would kill Hector in this battle.

Even though the end of the battle was known to the immortals, the mortal men fought long and hard on earth. The immortals also took place in the battle. Zeus did not object from this fighting. Athena fought Ares, Hera fought Artemis, and Poseidon fought with Apollo.

By the time the Scaean gates of Troy, the gates that led into the city, were opened, the Trojans were completely retreating from battle. Only Hector remained immovable before the city walls. From the gates, Hecuba and Priam, his parents, called for him to come inside the walls and be safe. Hector did not obey the wishes of his parents. He remained outside of the city walls.

Achilles appeared with Athena beside him. Hector was alone. Apollo had decided to leave Hector to his fate. As Achilles and Athena approached Hector, he turned and ran. Hector ran around the city walls three times with Achilles and Athena chasing him. Athena made Hector stop running. She appeared to him in the form of Deiphobus, his brother. Hector now thought that he had an ally to fight against Achilles. Hector told Achilles that if he killed him, he would return his body to the Greeks. He wanted Achilles to do the same, and return his body to the Trojans and his family who was behind the city walls. Achilles told him that there were no agreements made on the battlefield between enemies, and he threw his spear at him. It missed and Athena brought it back. Hector threw his spear and it stuck in the middle of Achilles’ shield. This was of no use, however. The armor was magical and could not be pierced.

Hector quickly turned to Deiphobus to take his spear. Deiphobus was not there. Hector then knew the truth; Athena had tricked him and there was no way he could escape his fate. Hector decided that he would go toward death fighting. He drew his sword, which was now his only weapon. He rushed upon Achilles. Achilles had his spear, and before Hector could approach him, he drove the spear into Hector near his throat. Hector was still wearing Achilles’ old armor, and Achilles knew of a spot near the throat where there was an opening large enough to be pierced with a spear. Hector fell, still pleading with Achilles to give his dead body to his father. Achilles again told Hector that he would not make agreements with him. Hector’s soul fled to the Underworld.

Achilles stripped Hector’s body of his armor. He then pierced the feet of the dead man and fastened them to the back of his chariot, letting Hector’s head trail behind him. He then lashed, or whipped, his horses and they began running around the walls of Troy, dragging the dead body of Hector.

On Mt. Olympus, the gods were not pleased with the actions Achilles’ took with Hector’s body. The abuse of the dead upset everyone except Hera, Athena, and Poseidon. Zeus was very upset with this disrespect for the dead. He sent Iris to Priam, to order him to go without fear to Achilles and redeem the body of Hector, but to take with him a rich ransom, or money or items to be given in return for someone or something that was taken. Iris was to tell Priam that even though Achilles appeared to be violent, he was not really evil.

King Priam then filled his chariot with the best items Troy had to offer. He went to the Greek camp looking for Achilles. Hermes met him, looking like a Greek youth, and offered himself to guide Priam to Achilles’ tent. Priam approached Achilles, the man who had killed his son and so violently disrespected his body. Priam fell to his knees and took Achilles hands in his. When he did this, Achilles and all of the other Greeks were in awe of King Priam. He told Achilles to think of his own father and of his desire for a son. Priam reminded Achilles that he was old and that he felt deep sorrow at the death of Hector. Achilles told Priam to sit with him.

Achilles was filled with grief when he listened to Priam speak. Achilles told his servants to wash and anoint Hector’s body with oil and cover it with a soft robe. He did not want Priam to see his son’s body in its mangled state. Achilles told Priam that he would keep the Greeks back from battle for as long as Priam wanted to make Hector’s funeral pyre. Priam brought Hector home. Everyone in Troy, including Helen, the reason for this great war, wept for Hector.

The city of Troy mourned for nine days. Then, they laid his body on a funeral pyre and set fire to it. When it had burned, they stopped the fire with wine and gathered the bones into a golden urn. They set the urn in a hollow grave and piled stones over it. This was the funeral for Hector. Homer’s Iliad ends with Hector’s funeral.

But the war was not over.

Now answer questions 1 through 28.

Argue the Case

Who was responsible for starting the Trojan War? According to Homer, the judgment of Paris was the beginning of the Trojan War. It could be argued that Eris, Aphrodite, and Helen were also to blame for the beginning of the war as well. Who do you believe was most responsible for the beginning of the Trojan War?

Your task is to become the prosecuting attorney in a case against one of the people or gods blamed for starting the Trojan War. The defendant has been on trial, and it is now time for the closing arguments to be presented. Your job is to convince the judge and jury that the defendant is guilty.

In order to be convincing, you need to present the facts in an orderly manner. Begin by choosing the person or god whom you believe is guilty. Then list the reasons why you believe the person or god is guilty. Do this on the PDF form provided. Open the form, enter your information, and save your final copy on your computer. You will be asked to submit this form in the questions section of this unit.

Next, use your evidence form to write your closing arguments. Keep in mind that the arguments need to be brief yet convincing. Your job is to use your words to sway the hearts and minds of the judge and jury and receive a guilty verdict. Use descriptive words. Be persuasive. Present the facts.

After you have written your closing arguments, re-read them. Are they completely convincing? Could you add more persuasive words to make the argument even stronger? Could you appeal more to the emotions of the judge and jury? Revise your closing arguments to make them even stronger. Then submit the revised version in the questions section of this unit.

After you have revised the content of your arguments, proofread the document for errors. Correct all spelling, punctuation, capitalization, and verb tense errors. Check for sentence fragments and run-on sentences. Correct all errors. Verify that your closing arguments meet the criteria listed in the checklist below.

Closing Arguments Evaluation Questions
YES	NO
		Did the closing arguments include at least four pieces of evidence pointing to the defendant being guilty of starting the Trojan War?
		Did the closing arguments include adequate persuasive language?
		Did the closing arguments include adequate descriptive words?
		Did the closing arguments appeal to the emotions of the judge and jury?
		Were the closing arguments free of spelling errors?
		Were the closing arguments free of capitalization errors?
		Were the closing arguments free of punctuation errors?
		Were the closing arguments free of run-on sentences?
		Were the closing arguments free of sentence fragments?
		Were the closing arguments convincing?

When you are satisfied that you can answer YES to each question on the evaluation list, submit the final draft of your arguments in the questions section of this unit.

After you complete the final draft of the closing arguments, record yourself delivering them to the judge and jury. Use a strong, commanding voice. As you speak, vary your speed and volume. Sound like the authority on this topic, and present your facts. You will record yourself delivering the closing arguments in the questions section of this unit.

Now answer questions 29 through 33.