W.11-12.1 Write arguments to support
claims in an analysis of substantive topics or texts, using valid reasoning and
relevant and sufficient evidence.
W.11-12.4 Produce clear and coherent
writing in which the development, organization, and style are appropriate to
task, purpose, and audience.
W.11-12.6 Use technology, including
the Internet, to produce, publish, and update individual or shared writing
products in response to ongoing feedback, including new arguments or
information.
Section A:Making an Argument
Logic. [Image]. In Britannica
LaunchPacks.
1. Aristotle was a highly influential ancient Greek philosopher who is responsible
for much of Western thought. In Aristotle’s Rhetoric, he defines rhetoric as finding the available means of persuasion in any given
situation. In ancient Greece, rhetoric was primarily understood as the
practice of orators, or those who engaged in public speaking.
Though we might be skeptical to reduce
all rhetoric to persuasion, even today we still find the study of rhetoric
important, as it can help us understand how to analyze and create texts across
mediums to reach our audiences and achieve specific purposes.
2. While rhetoricconcentrates on how
meaning is constructed for particular audiences, writingis a larger concept as it is both an activity and a
subject of study; it is a malleable (changing) tool used in activity as well as
the study of composed knowledge and its interactions within and across
activities. To visualize writing as this tool in ongoing activity, refer
to the top point (“Tools”) of the Activity Theory model:
Excerpted
from Russell, D. R. (1995).
3. Argument is a concept more closely-aligned with Aristotle’s definition of
rhetoric, as an argument involves taking a clear stance on an issue, explaining the reasons for that stance, and persuading an audience to think
or act along the beliefs or values of the speaker/writer.
What makes up an argument? If we look
at the image below, we can see a diagram of Toulmin’s model, which helps us see
the parts at work within an argument:
Adapted
from Toulmin, S. E. (1958). The Uses of Argument.
Note:
“Fact” can also be understood as “Data,” and “Conclusion” as “Claim.”
In Toulmin’s model (above), we see
that within an argument—in the “Conclusion” (or “Claim”)—is a well-evidenced prediction or
statement that relies on and builds upon existing knowledge. We can consider
this our thesis. If we check the etymology (word
origin/history of use) of the term “thesis,” we see it refers to placing
oneself as a user of writing within existing dialogues (conversations) on a
topic or issue (see below).
Let’s Practice:Thesis Statement
Section B: The Rhetorical Appeals
1. In Aristotle’s Rhetoric, he also
introduces three kinds of rhetorical appeals, which can be used to analyze,
evaluate, and develop arguments:
. Pathos: appeal
to an audience’s emotions
. Ethos: appeal
to the speaker/writer’s credibility, or appeal to the audience’s
socially and
culturally derived maxims (based on widely accepted beliefs or values)
. Logos: appeal
to logic or reasoning
Let’s Practice: Appeals
2. While we should pay attention to appeals of
pathos and ethos in arguments, it is particularly important for an argument to
use sound logos, or logic. Referring to Toulmin’s model of argument, we can see
how logic connects our data/facts and our evidence (warrant and backing) to
support our claim.
3. When we find problems or inconsistencies in
connecting this claim or thesis to the evidence and data, we can identify where
we might need to search for more information or visit alternative perspectives
on the topic or issue.
