FROM REPUBLIC TO
EMPIRE
Unit
Overview
After
establishing control over the Italian peninsula, the Romans began to build an
empire by conquering territory around the Mediterranean Sea. This brought Rome into conflict with Carthage,
an equally ambitious city in northern Africa.
The two cities fought a series of wars to determine which one would
dominate the region. Although Rome emerged
victorious, the Carthaginian Wars would have both positive and negative
long-term effects for Roman state. Let’s
see how it all happened.
The
Wars with Carthage
Carthage, once a colony of the Phoenicians,
was located on the coast of northern Africa and, like Rome, had plans to
dominate the area around the Mediterranean Sea.
This made conflict between the two cities inevitable and resulted in a
series of wars known as the Carthaginian
or Punic Wars. When war broke out
between the two cities for the first time in 264 B.C., both sides had certain
advantages. Carthage, the larger of the
two, had directed its energy to making money through trade. With their wealth, the Carthaginians had
built a navy with over 500 ships and hired neighboring peoples to serve as
soldiers. The Romans, on the other hand,
had no actual navy. Since they had spent
their energy on making war rather than making money, the Romans did have an
experienced, well-trained army with 500,000 troops at their disposal. Their solders were more reliable and more
loyal than those employed by the Carthage.
When a Carthaginian warship ran aground in Italy, the Romans received a
remarkable piece of good luck. They made
140 copies of the ship and added a few touches of their own. The Romans were then in a better position to
compete with the Carthaginians on the sea.
The First Punic War was over control of the
island of Sicily and dragged on for
twenty-three years. Rome finally
defeated Carthage, and the victory awarded Sicily, Sardinia and Corsica to
Rome. For the next forty years, Rome and
Carthage maintained an uneasy peace. In
218 B.C., the Carthaginian general Hannibal organized his forces at a base in
Spain and prepared to attack Rome in the Second
Punic War. He led his army,
including several dozen war elephants, across France and over the Alps to raid
Rome from the north. Even though this
plan cost the lives of half of his soldiers, Hannibal took the Romans by
surprise and won battle after battle for fifteen years.
In
spite of his success, Hannibal was unable to capture the city of Rome
itself. Desperate to get enemy out of
Italy, the Romans sent an army to Carthage.
This was a risky move, and not all Romans thought it was good idea. When the Romans began to arrive outside of
their city, the Carthaginians demanded that Hannibal bring his army home to
defend them. Hannibal had little choice
but to comply. The Romans defeated the
Carthaginians in a battle near Carthage, and the Second Punic War was another
win for Rome.
Artist's
Rendition of Hannibal Crossing the Alps
The
damage done in Italy by Hannibal’s army left the Romans with a desire for
revenge that was not satisfied by winning the Second Punic War. Many Romans argued in favor of the complete
destruction of Carthage. This resulted
in the Third Punic War and the
obliteration of Carthage. Those who
survived the attack were sold into slavery, and salt was poured over the soil
so nothing could grow there again. There
was no question that Rome was the undisputable master of the western
Mediterranean.
At
the same time, Rome extended its power across the eastern Mediterranean and
battled the rulers who had divided the empire of Alexander the Great. Greece, Macedonia and sections of Asia Minor
surrendered to the Romans and became provinces,
a term used for lands under Roman rule.
Other areas, such as Egypt, formally became Roman allies. It appeared that Rome was dedicated to
following a policy of imperialism or
the establishment of control over other lands.
Ruins
of Carthage
The
End of the Republic
Rome
not only conquered vast amounts of territory but also gained control of several
major trade routes. As money poured into
the city from taxes and increased business, a new class of wealthy Romans
formed. The built impressive mansions
and filled them with luxuries from distant lands. Some rich families used their money to buy
country estates and turned them into large farms called latifundia. As Romans added
new territory to their holdings, they made even greater profits by forcing
captured people to work as slaves. The
price of grain in the Roman markets quickly fell, and small farmers in Italy
were forced to sell their property to pay their debts. Without land to farm, the unemployed moved to
Rome and other cities with the hope of finding work. As the gap between the rich and the poor grew
wider, angry mobs roamed the streets, and riots became common.
Although
there were attempts at reform, the republic was unable to solve its social and
economic problems. A series of civil
wars rocked the Italian peninsula, and unrest spread throughout Rome’s
provinces. Popular political leaders
challenged the traditional role of the Roman senate. The Roman army, no longer made up of
citizen-soldiers, consisted of men who signed up to serve for sixteen years. They became professional soldiers and were
willing to fight for any leader who rewarded them. This made it possible for rival politicians
to form their own armies and to take control by force.
The
Career of Julius Caesar
Julius Caesar, perhaps the most famous
Roman of them all, was a master at using a loyal army to further his
ambitions. In 59 B.C., he set out to
conquer Gaul, which consisted mostly
of modern-day France. After nine years
and a successful military campaign, a triumphant Caesar prepared to return to
Rome with his army. Pompey, his chief rival, convinced the
senate to command Caesar to disband his troops and to come to Rome without
them. Caesar defied the order and
marched toward Rome with his army. In
the civil war that followed, Caesar defeated Pompey and forced the senate to
appoint him dictator.
Julius Caesar
Although
he kept several features of the republic, including the senate, there was no
doubt that Julius Caesar was the absolute ruler of Rome. In an effort to fix Rome’s issues, he gave
public land to the poor and established a government-sponsored works program to
create jobs. Along with granting
citizenship to more people, Caesar introduced a new, 365-day calendar which,
with minor changes, we still use today.
In spite of these efforts, Caesar’s enemies plotted against him, and he
was assassinated in 44 B.C. To learn
more about the life and career of Julius Caesar, view the video listed below.
The
death of Julius Caesar plunged Rome into a new round of civil wars. Octavian,
Caesar’s great nephew, and Mark Antony,
one of Caesar’s trusted generals, were determined to track down the
murders. After they accomplished this,
the two men engaged in a bitter struggle for power. In a sea battle, Octavian defeated Mark
Antony and his ally Cleopatra, queen
of Egypt. The senate gave Octavian the
title of Augustus (Excellent One)
and declared him the princeps or
first citizen. This ended the Roman
republic and made Augustus the first emperor of Rome.
Augustus
Takes Charge
Augustus
worked to return stability to Rome. Like
Julius Caesar, he left the senate in place but added a civil service. This action
created an efficient system of workers to make sure everything operated
smoothly and to enforce the laws. They
collected taxes, represented Rome in the provinces and supervised construction
projects. Augustus ordered a census or a population count
throughout the empire. New coins were
issued to make it easier to conduct business, and a postal service delivered
mail to Britain and other distant provinces.
To create jobs, Augustus ordered a number of construction projects, and
an efficient system of roads soon connected outlying territories to Rome.
Pax
Romana
The
reign of Augustus began a 200-year period known as the Pax Romana, a Latin phrase that means the Roman peace. During this era, Rome and its territories,
for the most part, experienced peace, prosperity and order. The Roman army patrolled the network of roads
throughout the empire, and Roman ships protected the seas from pirates. As a result, travel was relatively safe, and
advancements in transportation made it faster.
Trade flourished, and new products came from everywhere. Spices from India, silk from China and wild
animals from Africa could all be found in Rome.
At the same time, ideas and knowledge were exchanged across the
empire.
Not
all of the emperors that followed Augustus were good rulers. Some, like Nero and Caligula, were incompetent
and cruel. There were others, however,
like Hadrian and Marcus Aurelius, who were committed to good leadership. Click on the graphic below to discover which
Roman emperor was the most like you. In
an attempt to gain public support and to quiet any unrest, most emperors
offered free grain to the poor and used tax dollars to provide spectacular
public entertainment. Romans of all
social classes loved the chariot races held in the Circus Maximus and enjoyed
watching the gladiators in the Coliseum.
Similar activities took place in Roman-style arenas built throughout the
empire. During the Pax Romana, Rome’s
political and social problems still existed but remained just below the
surface.
What
Happened Next?
The
impact of ancient Rome extended far beyond famous leaders and military
accomplishments. Its achievements in
engineering, literature and law continue to impact our daily lives. The rise of Christianity within the empire
and the Roman reaction to this faith has shaped our thoughts and
traditions. Before exploring these
topics in the next unit, review the names and terms found in Unit 7; then,
complete Questions 21 through 30.