American History

Immigration, Migration, and Urbanization in America

(1877-1920)

Before we begin this unit, watch the video below. You will identify major push and pull factors that drove immigration to the U.S. in the 19th century, and explore the relationship between immigration and industrialization.

Interactive Glossary

Transforming American Life (1877–1920)

The late 19th and early 20th centuries were marked by significant changes in the social, economic, and physical landscape of the United States. Three major forces—immigration , internal migration, and urbanization—transformed American life in profound ways. The influx of immigrants, the movement of African Americans from the rural South to the urban North, and the rapid growth of cities all contributed to shaping the nation's future. This unit will explore how these dynamics altered American society by examining their causes, the responses they elicited, and their lasting impacts.

In the late 19th century, the United States experienced a period of rapid industrial growth. Railroads connected the East and West Coasts, and urbanization surged in major cities. These cities offered jobs in industries such as textiles, steel, and various factory work, while the Midwest and West needed labor for farming and mining. Meanwhile, in Europe and Asia, many people were struggling with economic hardship and religious persecution. For them, America represented a land of opportunity. In this activity, you’ll explore the reasons why Europeans and Asians migrated to America during the late 19th and early 20th centuries.

Immigration and Its Impact on American Life

Immigration has always been a defining element in the shaping of the United States, but the late 19th and early 20th centuries marked a particularly transformative era. During this period, millions of people from around the world, especially Europe and Asia, made their way to American shores in search of better lives. These immigrants were drawn by the promise of opportunity and freedom but also faced significant challenges upon their arrival. The surge in immigration altered the economic, cultural, and social fabric of the United States, filling critical labor shortages while introducing new cultural elements into American life. However, this period also saw the rise of nativism, a response to the growing immigrant population, which led to restrictive policies that would shape future immigration debates.

German immigrants board a ship that will take them to the United States. North Wind Picture Archives/Alamy

Causes of Mass Immigration

From the late 1800s to the early 1900s, the United States experienced a massive wave of immigration, especially from Europe and Asia. Several factors contributed to this surge. Economic hardship, political instability, and religious persecution in countries such as Italy, Russia, and Ireland drove millions to seek a better life in America. The promise of opportunity and the allure of the “American Dream” attracted immigrants who hoped to improve their living conditions and provide a future for their families.

In addition, technological advancements in transportation, particularly the expansion of steamships, made it easier and more affordable for people to cross the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. As a result, Ellis Island and Angel Island became major ports of entry for immigrants entering the United States.

Would you leave your home country in search of a better life, even if the journey was risky? What if you knew you would face hard work and tough living conditions? Between 1892 and 1954, every immigrant arriving from Europe had to undergo inspection at Ellis Island in New York. During this period, nearly 12 million people entered the United States. After successfully passing through Ellis Island, immigrants were free to pursue religious freedom and economic opportunity in their new homeland.

How Immigration Transformed American Life

The arrival of millions of immigrants in the late 19th and early 20th centuries had a profound impact on American life. Immigration filled a critical demand for workers in the growing industrial economy. Immigrants took on jobs in factories, railroads, and mines, helping to fuel the rapid industrialization of the country. This labor force was essential to the United States' rise as a global economic power.

However, the influx of immigrants also caused cultural changes. Immigrants brought with them their own languages, customs, religions, and traditions, which blended with the existing culture to create a more diverse and dynamic society. The diffusion of ethnic traits into American life could be seen in food, music, and holidays. For example, Italian pizza, Jewish bagels, and Chinese cuisine became staples of American dining. Similarly, ethnic neighborhoods such as Little Italy and Chinatown emerged in major cities, preserving the cultural heritage of immigrant communities while contributing to the vibrancy of urban life.

Despite their contributions, immigrants also faced significant challenges, including discrimination and hostility. Nativism, or the belief that native-born Americans were superior to immigrants, grew in the late 1800s. Nativists feared that immigrants would take jobs, lower wages, and change the cultural identity of the country. This led to restrictive immigration policies, such as the Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882 and the Immigration Act of 1924, which limited the number of immigrants allowed into the country and targeted specific ethnic groups.

As immigration surged, the United States became known as a "melting pot," a term used to describe the blending of people from various cultures and backgrounds. Over time, many immigrants let go of their native languages and traditions, gradually assimilating, or becoming "Americanized." In this activity, you’ll explore what it meant for immigrants to assimilate into American culture during the late 19th and early 20th centuries.

The Long-Term Effects of Immigration

Immigration's long-term impact on American life is undeniable. Immigrants not only filled labor shortages but also contributed to the cultural and demographic diversity of the United States. Their presence enriched the nation's cultural fabric and helped build the foundation of a multicultural society. However, the tensions between welcoming immigrants and restricting their entry laid the groundwork for ongoing debates about immigration policy that persist to this day.

Immigrants played a crucial role in building America, yet they were often met with unfair treatment. Those arriving during this time faced significant hardship and hostility, as Americans discriminated against them based on their religion and culture. Many Americans also feared that immigrants would accept lower wages and work longer hours, fueling resentment. These growing concerns led Congress to impose restrictions on immigration. In this activity, you'll explore the impact of the Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882 and the Immigration Restriction Act of 1921.

Interactivity: Immigration Review

Now that you have explored immigration, complete this activity to check your knowledge. Click the player button to get started.

Internal Migration and the Great Migration

The movement of people within the United States, known as internal migration, was a powerful force in shaping the country's demographics and culture during the early 20th century. Among the most significant internal migrations was the Great Migration, which saw millions of African Americans move from the rural South to the urban North in search of economic opportunities and freedom from racial oppression. This massive movement had profound effects on both the regions people left and those they settled in, transforming the economic, social, and cultural fabric of the United States. In the following sections, we will explore the causes and consequences of internal migration, focusing on the Great Migration and its lasting impact on American life.

In the video below, you will analyze the causes and consequences of the Great Migration by exploring its effect on the cultural and political landscapes.

Causes of Internal Migration

Internal migration also played a crucial role in transforming American life during this period. The most significant example of internal migration was the Great Migration, the movement of African Americans from the rural South to the urban North between 1916 and 1970. The Great Migration began in earnest during World War I when the demand for labor in northern cities increased due to the war effort, and it continued as African Americans sought to escape the harsh realities of life in the Jim Crow South.

In the South, African Americans faced systemic racism, discriminatory laws, and violence, including lynching. They were denied basic rights and opportunities for economic advancement. Many African Americans migrated north to seek better-paying jobs, escape racial violence, and secure greater political and social freedoms.

Black Southerners migrated north in great numbers, seeking jobs and a better quality of life. Woodward—State Archives of Florida, Florida Memory (https://www.floridamemory.com/items/show/32442)

How the Great Migration Transformed American Life

The Great Migration had profound social, economic, and cultural effects on both the North and the South. In northern cities like Chicago, Detroit, and New York, African American communities grew significantly, contributing to the cultural vibrancy of these urban centers. Economically, African Americans filled jobs in factories, steel mills, and railroads, becoming an integral part of the workforce.

Culturally, the Great Migration led to a flowering of African American art, music, and literature, most notably during the Harlem Renaissance of the 1920s. This cultural movement celebrated African American identity and creativity and had a lasting impact on American culture as a whole. Jazz, blues, and other musical forms became popular across racial lines, and writers like Langston Hughes and Zora Neale Hurston gained national recognition.

However, the Great Migration also led to increased racial tensions in northern cities. As African Americans moved into predominantly white neighborhoods, competition for jobs and housing intensified, leading to race riots and clashes. Despite these challenges, the migration helped lay the foundation for the Civil Rights Movement of the 1950s and 1960s, as African Americans in the North were better positioned to organize and demand equality.

Jazz music thrived during the Harlem Renaissance, with legends like Cab Calloway defining the era's soundtrack. © 20th Century Fox/Kobal/Shutterstock.com

The Long-Term Effects of the Great Migration

The Great Migration fundamentally altered the demographics of the United States. It shifted the center of African American life from the rural South to the urban North and laid the groundwork for the social and political activism that would follow. It also contributed to the growth of a black middle class and the emergence of African American political leaders. The migration remains one of the most significant internal population movements in American history.

Interactivity: Internal Migration and the Great Migration

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Urbanization and Its Effects on Cities

The rapid growth of cities, or urbanization, was one of the defining features of American life during the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Driven by both immigration and internal migration, urbanization transformed not only the physical landscape of cities but also the social and economic structures that governed them. As people flocked to urban centers in search of economic opportunities, cities evolved into hubs of industry, culture, and population growth. However, these changes also brought about new challenges, such as overcrowding, poor living conditions, and segregation, making urbanization a double-edged sword. In the following sections, we will explore the causes, transformations, and long-term effects of urbanization on American cities.

How Urbanization Transformed Cities

The most visible change brought about by urbanization was the physical transformation of cities. Skyscrapers and tall buildings began to dominate the urban landscape as cities grew vertically to accommodate increasing populations. Innovations such as steel-frame construction and the elevator made it possible to build taller buildings, changing the skyline of cities like New York and Chicago.

At the same time, the need to house large numbers of workers led to the construction of tenements—narrow, multi-story buildings that housed multiple families in cramped, often unsanitary conditions. These tenement buildings became a symbol of urban poverty, with overcrowded living conditions, poor ventilation, and inadequate access to clean water and sanitation.

Urbanization also brought with it a host of social problems. Overcrowding in cities led to increased crime rates, the spread of diseases, and poor living conditions. Cities struggled to provide adequate services, such as sanitation, clean water, and public health measures, to their rapidly growing populations. These challenges were exacerbated by the arrival of new immigrants and internal migrants, who often settled in ethnic neighborhoods, contributing to the diversity of the urban population but also creating pockets of poverty and segregation.

Despite these challenges, urbanization also led to significant improvements in public infrastructure. The development of public transportation systems, such as streetcars and subways, made it easier for people to commute to work and travel within cities. This facilitated the growth of suburbs, where middle-class families could live in quieter, less crowded areas while still having access to city jobs and amenities.

The Relationship Between Urban Growth and the Development of Suburbs

As cities grew larger and more crowded, many middle-class families began to move to the suburbs, areas located on the outskirts of urban centers. The development of public transportation systems made it possible for people to live farther from their workplaces while still being able to commute to the city. Suburbs offered a quieter, more spacious alternative to the crowded and often polluted conditions of urban life.

The rise of suburbs was also driven by the desire for homeownership, which became an important part of the American Dream. Many families sought to escape the perceived dangers and social problems of the city, such as crime and poverty, by moving to suburban areas where they could own a home with a yard and enjoy a better quality of life.

However, the growth of suburbs also contributed to the segregation of American society. As middle-class white families moved to the suburbs, African Americans and other minority groups were often excluded from these areas due to discriminatory housing policies and practices, such as redlining. This led to the concentration of poverty and racial segregation in urban areas, while the suburbs became predominantly white and middle-class.

Interactivity: Urbanization and Its Effects on Cities

Answer the following questions based on the content you've learned. Select the correct answer from the dropdown menu.